Northern Cardinal Cardinalis cardinalis Scientific name definitions

This account is dedicated in honor of Julie Schnuck, member of the Cornell Lab of Ornithology's Administrative Board.

Among the most abundant species on the continent, the Northern Cardinal is broadly distributed in eastern, central, and portions of southwestern North America, from southern Canada to northern Central America, and has been introduced to Hawaii, southern California, and Bermuda. A member of family Cardinalidae, it is one of 3 species of Cardinalis, the others being Pyrrhuloxia (C. sinuatus) and Vermilion Cardinal (C. phoeniceus). This year-round resident has been expanding its range northward since at least the mid-1800s, taking advantage of moderate temperatures, human habitation, and provisioning at bird feeders. It is a popular visitor to bird feeders and is the state bird for seven states in the United States.

Named for the male's red plumage, the Northern Cardinal is strongly sexually dichromatic— males are brilliant red and females are primarily grayish tan with red on the wings, tail, and crest, and often also small amounts of red on the face and upper breast. This species is omnivorous with a diet consisting mainly of seeds, fruits and insects. Red plumage color results from ingestion, metabolic conversion, and deposition of carotenoid pigments obtained from the diet during molt. Plumage coloration may signal individual quality and/or behavioral attributes. Redder males, with more densely pigmented plumage, have territories with greater vegetation density, and may be larger and have higher reproductive success. In females, redder underwing plumage is correlated with body condition, whereas darker face mask plumage (melanin pigmented) has been correlated with aggressive behavior in some populations. Carotenoid pigmented plumage in both the male (breast color) and female (underwing covert color) has been positively correlated with parental care. Studies in urban and rural environments have reported different relationships between plumage color and behavior or reproductive success— these differences may relate to habitat differences between rural and urban environments (see Sexual Behavior: Ornamentation), and/or to variation in color measurement and analysis techniques.

Both males and females sing. Female song from the nest appears to provide the male with information about when to bring food to the nest. Local song dialects are apparent; mates and neighbors share most or all of their song repertoires, and repertoires diverge increasingly with increased distance, although some song elements are reported to span the species range.

The Northern Cardinal is socially monogamous, but DNA-fingerprinting studies reveal extrapair paternity in 9–35% of young. Both sexes care for nestlings, but males may contribute more food. Predation rates are high on nestlings and eggs, and only 15–37% of nests produce fledglings. Nests are parasitized by Brown-headed Cowbird (Molothrus ater) and Bronzed Cowbird (M. aeneus); egg removal by Brown-headed Cowbird females may have a greater negative impact than does competition from cowbird nestlings.

Generally speaking, this species has received a great deal of research attention. Major areas of study have included communication (e.g., 1 Lemon, R. E., and D. M. Scott (1966). On the development of song in young Cardinals. Canadian Journal of Zoology 44: 191–197. Close , 2 Lemon, R. E. (1966). Geographic variation in the song of Cardinals. Canadian Journal of Zoology 44: 413–428. Close , 3 Lemon, R. E. (1967). The response of Cardinals to songs of different dialects. Animal Behaviour 15: 538–545. Close , 4 Lemon, R. E. (1968). The displays and call notes of Cardinals. Canadian Journal of Zoology 46: 141–151. Close , 5 Lemon, R. E. (1968). The relation between organization and function of song in Cardinals. Behaviour 32: 158–178. Close , 6 Lemon, R. E., and C. Chatfield (1971). Organization of song in Cardinals. Animal Behaviour 19: 1–17. Close , 7 Lemon, R. E. (1975). How birds develop song dialects. Condor 77: 385–406. Close , 8 Lemon, R. E. (1975). Repetitions and pattern switches in songs of Cardinals, Cardinalis cardinalis. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 38: 294–303. Close , 9 Ritchison, G. (1986). The singing behavior of female northern cardinals. Condor 88: 156–159. Close , 10 Ritchison, G. (1988). Song repertoires and the singing behavior of male Northern Cardinals. Wilson Bulletin 100: 583–603. Close , 11 McElroy, D. B., and G. Ritchison (1996). Effect of mate removal on singing behavior and movement patterns of female Northern Cardinals. Wilson Bulletin 108: 550–555. Close , 12 Halkin, S. L. (1997). Nest-vicinity song exchanges may coordinate biparental care of Northern Cardinals. Animal Behaviour 54: 189–198. Close , 13 Yamaguchi, A. (1998). A sexually dimorphic learned birdsong in the Northern Cardinal. Condor 100: 504–511. Close , 14 Yamaguchi, A. (1998). Can a sexually dimorphic learned birdsong be used for male-female recognition? Behaviour 135: 833–844. Close , 15 Jawor, J. M., N. Gray, S. M. Beall, and R. Breitwisch (2004). Multiple ornaments correlate with aspects of condition and behaviour in female Northern Cardinals, Cardinalis cardinalis. Animal Behaviour 67(5): 875–882. Close , 16 Jawor, J. M., and R. Breitwisch (2004). Multiple ornaments in male Northern Cardinals, Cardinalis cardinalis, as indicators of condition. Ethology 110(2): 113–126. Close , 17 Vondrasek, J. R. (2006). Social factors affect the singing rates of female Northern Cardinals Cardinalis cardinalis. Journal of Avian Biology 37(1): 52–57. Close , 18 Narango, D. L., and A. D. Rodewald (2016). Urban-associated drivers of song variation along a rural-urban gradient. Behavioral Ecology 27(2): 608–616. Close , 19 Winters, C. P., and J. M. Jawor (2017). Melanin ornament brightness and aggression at the nest in female Northern Cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis). Auk 134: 128–136. Close , 20 Narango, D. L., and A. D. Rodewald (2018). Signal information of bird song changes in human-dominated landscapes. Urban Ecosystems 21(1): 41–50. Close ), anatomical and physiological control of sound production (e.g., 21 Yamaguchi, A. (1996). Female bird song: Function, physiology, and development in the Northern Cardinal. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis, California, USA. Close , 22 Suthers, R. A., and F. Goller (1997). Motor correlates of vocal diversity in songbirds. In Current Ornithology (V. Nolan Jr., E. D. Ketterson, and C. F. Thompson, Editors). Plenum Press, New York, NY, USA. pp. 235–288. Close , 23 Fletcher, N. H., T. Riede, and R. A. Suthers (2006). Model for vocalization by a bird with distensible vocal cavity and open beak. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 119: 1005–1011. Close , 24 Riede, T., R. A. Suthers, N. H. Fletcher, and W. E. Blevins (2006). Songbirds tune their vocal tract to the fundamental frequency of their song. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103: 5543–5548. Close , 25 Jawor, J. M., and S. A. MacDougall-Shackleton (2008). Seasonal and sex-related variation in song control nuclei in a species with near-monomorphic song, the Northern Cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis). Neuroscience Letters 443(3): 169–173. Close , 26 Goller, F., and T. Riede (2013). Integrative physiology of fundamental frequency control in birds. Journal of Physiology-Paris 107: 230–242. Close , 27 Suthers, R. A., J. R. Rothgerber, and K. K. Jensen (2016). Lingual articulation in songbirds. Journal of Experimental Biology 219(4): 491–500. Close ), parental care (28 Filliater, T. S., and R. Breitwisch (1997). Nestling provisioning by the extremely dichromatic Northern Cardinal. Wilson Bulletin 109: 145–153. Close , 29 Linville, S. U., R. Breitwisch, and A. J. Schilling (1998). Plumage brightness as an indicator of parental care in male and female Northern Cardinals. Animal Behaviour 55: 119–127. Close , 15 Jawor, J. M., N. Gray, S. M. Beall, and R. Breitwisch (2004). Multiple ornaments correlate with aspects of condition and behaviour in female Northern Cardinals, Cardinalis cardinalis. Animal Behaviour 67(5): 875–882. Close , 16 Jawor, J. M., and R. Breitwisch (2004). Multiple ornaments in male Northern Cardinals, Cardinalis cardinalis, as indicators of condition. Ethology 110(2): 113–126. Close , 30 DeVries, M. S., and J. M. Jawor (2013). Natural variation in circulating testosterone does not predict nestling provisioning rates in the Northern Cardinal, Cardinalis cardinalis. Animal Behavior 85: 957–965. Close ), hormonal control of behavior and general hormone physiology (21 Yamaguchi, A. (1996). Female bird song: Function, physiology, and development in the Northern Cardinal. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis, California, USA. Close , 31 Jawor, J. M. (2007). Testosterone in Northern Cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis): Possible influence of prolonged territorial behavior. Auk 124(1): 331–338. Close , 32 DeVries, M. S., A. L. Holbrook, C. P. Winters, and J. M. Jawor (2011). Non-breeding gonadal testosterone production of male and female Northern Cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis) following GnRH challenge. General and Comparative Endocrinology 174: 370–378. Close , 33 DeVries, M. S., C. P. Winters, and J. M. Jawor (2012). Testosterone elevation and response to gonadotropin-releasing hormone challenge by male Northern Cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis) following aggressive behavior. Hormones and Behavior 62: 99–105. Close , 30 DeVries, M. S., and J. M. Jawor (2013). Natural variation in circulating testosterone does not predict nestling provisioning rates in the Northern Cardinal, Cardinalis cardinalis. Animal Behavior 85: 957–965. Close , 34 DeVries, M. S., C. P. Winters, and J. M. Jawor (2015). Testosterone might not be necessary to support female aggression in incubating Northern Cardinals. Animal Behaviour 107: 139–146. Close , 35 Fokidis, H. B. (2016). Sources of variation in plasma corticosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone in the male Northern Cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis): I. Seasonal patterns and effects of stress and adrenocorticotropic hormone. General and Comparative Endocrinology 235: 192–200. Close , 36 Wright, S., and H. B. Fokidis (2016). Sources of variation in plasma corticosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone in the male Northern Cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis): II. Effects of urbanization, food supplementation and social stress. General and Comparative Endocrinology 235: 201–209. Close , 37 Duckworth, B. M., and J. M. Jawor (2018). Corticosterone profiles in Northern Cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis): Do levels vary through life history stages? General and Comparative Endocrinology 263: 1–6. Close ), effects of nest parasitism by cowbirds (38 Scott, D. M. (1963). Changes in the reproductive activity of the Brown-headed Cowbird within the breeding season. Wilson Bulletin 75: 123–129. Close , 39 Scott, D. M. (1977). Cowbird parasitism on the Gray Catbird at London, Ontario. Auk 94: 18–27. Close , 40 Scott, D. M., P. J. Weatherhead, and C. D. Ankney (1992). Egg-eating by female Brown-headed Cowbirds. Condor 94: 579–584. Close , 41 Scott, D. M., and R. E. Lemon (1996). Differential reproductive success of Brown-headed Cowbirds with Northern Cardinal and three other hosts. Condor 98: 259–271. Close , 42 Eckerle, K. P., and R. Breitwisch (1997). Reproductive success of the Northern Cardinal, a large host of Brown-headed Cowbirds. Condor 99: 169–178. Close ), nest placement and defense (43 Filliater, T. S., R. Breitwisch, and P. M. Nealen (1994). Predation on cardinal nests: Does choice of nest site matter? Condor 96: 761–768. Close , 44 Nealen, P. M., and R. Breitwisch (1997). Northern Cardinal sexes defend nests equally. Wilson Bulletin 109: 269–278. Close , 15 Jawor, J. M., N. Gray, S. M. Beall, and R. Breitwisch (2004). Multiple ornaments correlate with aspects of condition and behaviour in female Northern Cardinals, Cardinalis cardinalis. Animal Behaviour 67(5): 875–882. Close ), extra-pair fertilizations (45 Ritchison, G., P. H. Klatt, and D. F. Westneat (1994). Mate guarding and extra-pair paternity in Northern Cardinals. Condor 96: 1055–1063. Close ), molt (46 Scott, D. M. (1967). Postjuvenal molt and determination of age of the Cardinal. Bird-Banding 38: 37–51. Close , 47 Wiseman, A. J. (1977). Interrelation of variables in postjuvenal molt of Cardinals. Bird-Banding 48:206–223. Close , 48 Thompson, C. W., and M. Leu (1994). Determining homology of molts and plumages to address evolutionary questions: A rejoinder regarding emberizid finches. Condor 96:769–782. Close ), habitat and dispersal (e.g., 49 Dow, D. D., and D. M. Scott (1971). Dispersal and range expansion by the Cardinal: An analysis of banding records. Canadian Journal of Zoology 49: 185–198. Close , 50 Conner, R. N., M. E. Anderson, and J. F. Dickson (1986). Relationships among territory size, habitat, song and nesting success of Northern Cardinals. Auk 103: 23–31. Close ), and effects of urbanization and of non-native vegetation (e.g., 51 Rodewald, A. D., and D. P. Shustack (2008). Consumer resource matching in urbanizing landscapes: Are synanthropic species over-matching? Ecology 89: 515–521. Close , 52 Rodewald, A. D., D. P. Shustack, and L. E. Hitchcock (2010). Exotic shrubs as ephemeral ecological traps for nesting birds. Biological Invasions 12(1): 33–39. Close , 53 Jones, T. M., A. D. Rodewald, and D. P. Shustack (2010). Variation in plumage coloration of Northern Cardinals in urbanizing landscapes. Wilson Journal of Ornithology 122(2): 326–333. Close , 54 Shustack, D. P., and A. D. Rodewald (2011). Nest predation reduces benefits to early clutch initiation in Northern Cardinals Cardinalis cardinalis. Journal of Avian Biology 42: 204–209. Close , 55 Padilla, B. J., and A. D. Rodewald (2015). Avian metapopulation dynamics in a fragmented urbanizing landscape. Urban Ecosystems 18(1): 239–250. Close , 56 Rodewald, A. D., and P. Arcese (2017). Reproductive contributions of Cardinals are consistent with a hypothesis of relaxed selection in urban landscapes. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 5 (article 77). Close ). This species is regularly sampled in surveys of mosquito-borne viral infection rates in passerine birds (e.g., 57 Komar, N., J. Burns, C. Dean, N. A. Panella, S. Dusza, and B. Cherry (2001). Serologic evidence for West Nile Virus infection in birds in Staten Island, New York, after an outbreak in 2000. Vector-borne and Zoonotic Diseases 1: 191–196. Close , 58 Kilpatrick, A. M., S. L. LaDeau, and P. P. Marra (2007). Ecology of West Nile virus transmission and its impact on birds in the Western Hemisphere. Auk 124(4): 1121–1136. Close , 59 Ward, M. P., T. A. Beveroth, R. Lampman, A. Raim, D. Enstrom, and R. Novak (2010). Field-based estimates of avian mortality from West Nile Virus infection. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 10: 909–913. Close , 60 Molaei, G., M. C. Thomas, T. Muller, J. Medlock, J. J. Shepard, P. M. Armstrong, and T. G. Andreadis (2016). Dynamics of vector-host interactions in avian communities in four Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus foci in the Northeastern U.S. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 10(1): e0004347. Close ). Research has been geographically biased to the eastern United States; more information is needed from populations in southwestern North America, and introduced populations.