Black Stork Ciconia nigra Scientific name definitions
- LC Least Concern
- Names (61)
- Monotypic
Text last updated November 30, 2018
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Species names in all available languages
Language | Common name |
---|---|
Afrikaans | Grootswartooievaar |
Albanian | Lejleku i zi |
Arabic | لقلق اسود |
Armenian | Սև արագիլ |
Assamese | কালশৰ |
Asturian | Cigüeña prieta |
Azerbaijani | Qara leylək |
Bangla (India) | কালোজঙ্ঘা |
Basque | Zikoina beltza |
Bulgarian | Черен щъркел |
Catalan | cigonya negra |
Chinese | 黑鸛 |
Chinese (Hong Kong SAR China) | 黑鸛 |
Chinese (SIM) | 黑鹳 |
Croatian | crna roda |
Czech | čáp černý |
Danish | Sort Stork |
Dutch | Zwarte ooievaar |
English | Black Stork |
English (United States) | Black Stork |
Finnish | mustahaikara |
French | Cigogne noire |
French (Canada) | Cigogne noire |
Galician | Cegoña negra |
German | Schwarzstorch |
Greek | Μαύρος Πελαργός |
Gujarati | કાળો ઢોંક |
Hebrew | חסידה שחורה |
Hindi | सुरमल |
Hungarian | Fekete gólya |
Icelandic | Kolstorkur |
Italian | Cicogna nera |
Japanese | ナベコウ |
Kannada | ಕರಿ ಕೊಕ್ಕರೆ |
Korean | 먹황새 |
Ladakhi | གཞད་ནག |
Latvian | Melnais stārķis |
Lithuanian | Juodasis gandras |
Malayalam | കരിമ്പകം |
Mongolian | Хар өрөвтас |
Nepali (India) | कालो सारस |
Nepali (Nepal) | कालो गरुड |
Norwegian | svartstork |
Persian | لک لک سیاه |
Polish | bocian czarny |
Portuguese (Angola) | Cegonha-preta |
Portuguese (Portugal) | Cegonha-preta |
Punjabi (India) | ਕਾਲਾ ਲਮਢੀਂਗ |
Romanian | Barză neagră |
Russian | Чёрный аист |
Serbian | Crna roda |
Slovak | bocian čierny |
Slovenian | Črna štorklja |
Spanish | Cigüeña Negra |
Spanish (Spain) | Cigüeña negra |
Swedish | svart stork |
Telugu | నల్ల కొంగ |
Thai | นกกระสาดำ |
Turkish | Kara Leylek |
Ukrainian | Лелека чорний |
Zulu | unowanga |
Ciconia nigra (Linnaeus, 1758)
Definitions
- CICONIA
- ciconia
- nigra
The Key to Scientific Names
Legend Overview
Field Identification
95–100 cm; c. 3 kg; wingspan 144–155 cm. Male averages larger. Black upperparts with a green and purple gloss. Tail black; white undertail-coverts often fluffed-up and spread in flight , typically when adults are displaying above nest-sites during early breeding season, behaviour that has given rise to reports of white-tailed birds (1). Red bill can appear slightly recurved. Juvenile browner and duller , with bill and legs greenish. Immatures, in second-calendar year, distinguishable in having the head and neck matt black, not glossy; legs orange to red; bill is red but the red facial skin is acquired during the latter part of second year (2).
Systematics History
Subspecies
Hybridization
Hybrid Records and Media Contributed to eBird
-
Black x White Stork (hybrid) Ciconia nigra x ciconia
Distribution
Breeds across Palearctic, mostly c. 40°–60° N; also in scattered populations from Malawi and Namibia to South Africa. Winters in NE, sub-Saharan and S Africa, and from W India (Gujarat) E through N India and N Indochina to SE & E China, Taiwan and South Korea; some individuals (few hundreds) resident in SW Spain (3).
Habitat
Generally prefers undisturbed open woodland, foraging in streams, pools, marshes, riverbanks, occasionally grasslands, normally avoiding large bodies of water and closed forest. Generally avoids humans when nesting. Breeders in Iberia and sub-Saharan Africa are associated with rocky habitats and watercourses that traverse them. Iberian birds also frequent the many livestock ponds that occur in dehesa woodland: they select ponds distant from roads, with a large surface area, high-water level, shallow shores, low turbidity, few traces of wild ungulates on the shores, a high diversity of fish and amphibian species, and a vegetated perimeter, in flat and open areas (4). Not usually encountered in extensive open areas, at least when nesting. However, flocks of passage and wintering birds may be encountered in open marshland and often frequent ricefields in Iberia (5). Breeds up to 850 m in Austria and 2000 m in S Africa.
Movement
Largely migratory. W Palearctic populations chiefly winter in sub-Saharan Africa, mainly in the narrow band of wooded savanna from Mali E to Central African Republic and in Mauritania, Senegambia and Guinea Bissau (6). Regarded as rare to scarce in this region, but observations are increasingly frequent, probably at least partly reflecting recent increases in W Palearctic populations. In Mauritania, for example, records have increased in the S & E on passage and in winter in the Senegal Delta, where there was an exceptional flock of 117 birds in Feb 2006 (7). Some Iberian birds overwinter on the peninsula, principally in the lower Guadalquivir vallley and at some reservoirs in Extremadura, together with some from C European populations (5, 8). Satellite-tracking and observational studies show that most European migrants skirt the Mediterranean. Less tied to the narrowest sea-crossings than C. ciconia, but nonetheless seems to avoid long over-sea journeys. W European populations enter and leave Africa via the Strait of Gibraltar. Those from further E move via the Middle East and Sinai, many E European birds cross the Bosporus (9). Some small-scale passage across Sicilian narrows (10). In particular, storks breeding in Iberia, France, Belgium and W Germany use W migratory route, those in E Germany, the Czech Republic and Poland use both the E & W routes, and storks breeding in E Europe and W Russia use E route (11). Satellite-telemetry has revealed that some birds on W flyway use a succession of stopover sites, remaining for seven days on average (12). Vagrants occur in the British Isles and have reached the Canaries and Cape Verde (13, 14). Satellite-tracking of individuals moving to Africa via W Mediterranean has shown that C European birds start to leave breeding areas 15 days before Iberian ones, but they cross Strait of Gibraltar together and reach Sahel on similar dates, synchronized arrival in Sahel being possibly linked to the onset of favourable conditions after summer rains (many pools present); whereas Iberian storks occupy wintering areas in extreme W of Sahel, those from C Europe tended to move to areas closer to those occupied by birds crossing Bosporus (15). Migration to and from Europe peaks in Mar–Apr and Sept; however, passage periods at the Strait of Gibraltar are prolonged, mid Feb–mid May and mid Aug–Nov. African winter quarters almost entirely N of the equator but a few reach as far S as N Tanzania in the E, although there is no evidence that the Palearctic and African breeding populations ever mix (16). Among radio-tracked birds from the Czech Republic, those that used the W route wintered in tropical West Africa, in E Senegal in the Fale’me’ basin, Guinea, S Mauritania, Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone and W & C Mali. E route migrants winter in N Ethiopia, the central part of Central African Republic, in the Kotto basin and Mbokou basin, Chad and NE Nigeria (9). E Palearctic birds winter further S in Asia, from Iran and N Indian Subcontinent E to S China. Rare in Bangladesh (17). In China winters usually S of the Yangtse R, but recent wintering at Beijing reported (18). Some reach S India (19) with rare observations from SE Asia, e.g. Laos (20). Breeding population of S Africa partly migratory. In particular, those nesting in Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi largely absent during wettest months of rainy season, Jan–Mar, presumably because swollen rivers make fishing difficult then (16). They travel S to South Africa and Namibia.
Diet and Foraging
Mostly fish , such as loaches (Misgurnus) and pike (Esox lucius); also amphibia, insects, snails, crabs and small reptiles, mammals and birds. Wintering birds along the Juma R, Beijing, China, consumed mainly fish; in particular Crucian carp (Carasius carasius), topmouth minnow (Pseudorasbora parva), mudfish (Misgurnus anguillicaudatus) and Korean piscivorous chubb (Opsariichthys bidens), chiefly those < 5 cm long (18). The alien red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) is a frequent prey item in Iberian ricefields (21). Usually forages in shallow water; stalks prey, catching it with a sharp stab of bill; reported to shade water with wings in Portugal. Young require 400–500 g of food daily.
Sounds and Vocal Behavior
Usually silent away from breeding locality. Around nest, a series of drawn-out piping raptor-like whistles, “wheew-wheew-wheew-wheew-whu-whu”, and hissing sounds. Bill-clapping when excited and in display, but less frequent than C. ciconia. Young utter a variety of noises, ranging from a rhythmic low-pitched “gek-kek...gek-kek...gek-kek...” to grunts and growls when disturbed, also bill-clattering.
Breeding
Commences in spring in Palearctic and in Cape Province, South Africa. Those nesting further N in S Africa mainly breed during cool dry season. A solitary nester although several nests may occur quite close together in some areas. Most Palearctic birds nest in tall trees within extensive forest and woodland. Prefers remote, old-growth forests with very large trees for nesting, and has thus declined recently in parts of E Europe, notably the Baltic States, due to forestry activities and wider habitat degradation, but some adaptation to such habitat change has become evident in some regions; nevertheless, the species is an indicator of sustainable forestry practices (22). Some, including all S African birds, nest on ledges in cliffs , typically in riverine gorges or on rocky outcrops: including kopjes in Africa. Nesting in quarries, both active and disused, reported from Zimbabwe, where up to seven pairs may nest in single quarry (16). More than 60% of Iberian birds are cliff-nesters , others nesting on cork oaks in dehesa woodland or on pines, with at least two records of nests on buildings in Spain; on an aqueduct and a ruined house (5, 23). Cliff-nesting also reported from Beijing, China (18). Large stick nest , c. 1·5 m wide, lined with moss, grass and leaves, and bound with earth. Nests often used over successive years . Cliff-nests are usually on large ledges under overhangs. Taking over of old raptor nests, e.g of Verreaux’s Eagle (Aquila verreauxii), reported in Africa, where there is also a record of nesting on a Hamerkop (Scopus umbretta) nest. Some African birds, especially in Botswana, nest in colonies of Cape Vulture (Gyps coprotheres) (16) and a similar loose association with nesting Griffon Vultures (Gyps fulvus) is observed in Spain, perhaps largely due to both species using the same nesting habitat (some traditional nests in Extremadura have been usurped by the increasing vulture population there). Mean clutch size 3–4 eggs (2–6). Incubation 32–38 days (reportedly up to 46 days); chicks have white down. Fledging 63–71 days. In Spain mean nest productivity, at c. 1·94 chicks per nest (a figure close to that for European tree-nesting populations), did not differ between tree-nests and cliff-nests but cliff-nests more susceptible to human disturbance suffered reduced productivity (24). Sexual maturity probably not before three years. Oldest ringing recovery of 18-year-old bird. Oldest captive bird > 31 years old. A nest-site in South Korea, near Andong, may have been occupied by the species for in excess of 400 years.
Conservation Status
Not globally threatened (Least Concern). Global population estimated by Wetlands International at 24,000–44,000 birds (25): some regional population are increasing, others declining and others stable. W European populations show an ongoing positive trend, following a long period of historical decline, which saw the species disappear from Belgium and parts of Germany in late 19th century and from Denmark and Sweden in 1950s. Population recovery already well underway in many countries of W & E Europe by early 1990s and the total European population, including Turkey and Russia, put at 7800–12,000 pairs by start of 21st century (26, 27).
Changes in specific regions illustrate the extent of the recovery. The outpost population in the Iberian Peninsula was very sparse between the late 19th and mid 20th centuries, but there were > 500 pairs by the early 21st century, with nesting in W Spain and Portugal (5). A census of the Spanish population in 2017 found 388 occupied territories, with numbers reported as stable in the core region of Extremadura, and still increasing in Andalucía, but with declines evident in the peripheral sectors of the breeding range, in Madrid, Castilla y León and Castilla-La Mancha (8). A population of 13 pairs in France in 2002 increased to 60 pairs by 2012 (28). Austrian population of just three pairs in 1960 numbered 200–300 pairs by 2002. Breeders have returned to Belgium, where there were 31–41 pairs by 2002. Polish population put at 1100–1200 pairs in the late 1990s (29).
Increases in W & C European populations perhaps attributable to adaptation to human activity and habitat change. However, the sizeable E European populations have shown a declining trend (11), in the face of agricultural intensification and increased forestry activity in the case of the Baltic States. By around 2007 the total population of the Baltic States was estimated at 1200–1700 pairs, compared to > 2000 pairs a decade earlier; climate-mediated habitat change may also be affecting these populations (22); the Lithuanian population has declined by c. 20% since the 1990s to an estimated 650–950 pairs, but has shown some adaptation to habitat change by nesting closer to forest edges and in younger stands of trees.
Populations of E Palearctic not well known. Perhaps just 400–700 pairs throughout Russia (27) and the species is generally little known in China. The disjunct S African population may number 1000 pairs, perhaps half of them in Zimbabwe and the remainder ranging from southernmost Tanzania S to the Cape, and appears to be secure (16).
- Year-round
- Migration
- Breeding
- Non-Breeding